●Figures xxi
Tables xxiii
1. Introduction 1
章節導讀 1
1.1 The Study of Second Language Acquisition 2
1.2 Defi nitions 5
1.3 The Nature of Language 7
1.3.1 Sound Systems 7
1.3.2 Syntax 8
1.3.3 Morphology and the Lexicon 10
1.3.4 Semantics 11
1.3.5 Pragmatics 11
1.4 The Nature of Nonnative Speaker Knowledge 12
1.5 Conclusion 14
難點注釋與評析 15
Suggestions for Additional Reading 16
More to Do and More to Think About... 16
2. Second and Foreign Language Data 20
章節導讀 20
2.1 Data Analysis 21
2.1.1 Data Set I: Plurals 21
2.1.2 Data Set II: Verb + -ing Markers 28
2.1.3 Data Set III: Prepositions 30
2.2 Conclusion 33
難點注釋與評析 34
Suggestions for Additional Reading 35
More to Do and More to Think About... 35
3. Where Do Data Come From? 39
章節導讀 39
3.1 Data Types 42
3.2 Learner Corpora 48
3.3 Data Elicitation 52
3.3.1 Measuring General Proficiency 52
3.3.2 Measuring Nonlinguistic Information 53
3.3.3 Verbal Report Data 55
3.3.3.1 Think-Alouds 55
3.3.3.2 Stimulated Recall 58
3.3.3.3 t-Production Interviews 60
3.3.4 Language-Elicitation Measures 61
3.4 Processing Data 69
3.4.1 Reaction Time 69
3.4.2 Eye-Tracking 69
3.5 Replication 71
3.6 Meta-Analyses 72
3.7 Issues in Data Analysis 73
3.8 What Is Acquisition? 81
3.9 Conclusion 82
難點注釋與評析 84
Suggestions for Additional Reading 86
More to Do and More to Think About... 87
4. The Role of the Native Language: A Historical Overview 90
章節導讀 90
4.1 Introduction 92
4.2 Behaviorism 93
4.2.1 Linguistic Background 93
4.2.2 Psychological Background 96
4.3 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 99
4.4 Error Analysis 104
4.5 Conclusion 112
難點注釋與評析 113
Suggestions for Additional Reading 114
More to Do and More to Think About... 114
5. The Transition Period 122
章節導讀 122
5.1 Introduction 125
5.2 First Language Acquisition 125
5.2.1 Babbling 127
5.2.2 Words 129
5.2.3 Sounds and Pronunciation 130
5.2.4 Syntax 131
5.2.5 Morphology 132
5.3 Child L2 Acquisition 134
5.4 Child L2 Morpheme Order Studies 137
5.5 Adult L2 Morpheme Order Studies 140
5.6 The Monitor Model 145
5.6.1 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis 145
5.6.2 The Natural Order Hypothesis 146
5.6.3 The Monitor Hypothesis 146
5.6.4 The Input Hypothesis 148
5.6.5 The Affective Filter Hypothesis 149
5.6.6 Limitations 151
5.7 Conclusion 151
難點注釋與評析 152
Suggestions for Additional Reading 154
More to Do and More to Think About... 154
6. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Known Languages 156
章節導讀 156
6.1 Revised Perspectives on the Role of the Native Language 159
6.1.1 Avoidance 161
6.1.2 Differential Learning Rates 162
6.1.3 Different Paths 164
6.1.4 Overproduction 166
6.1.5 Predictability/Selectivity 167
6.1.6 L1 Influences in L2 Processing 173
6.1.7 Morpheme Order 174
6.2 Conclusion 175
難點注釋與評析 176
Suggestions for Additional Reading 177
More to Do and More to Think About... 177
7. Formal Approaches to SLA 180
章節導讀 180
7.1 Introduction 183
7.2 Universal Grammar 184
7.2.1 Initial State 187
7.2.1.1 Fundamental Difference Hypothesis 188
7.2.1.2 Access to UG Hypothesis 189
7.2.2 UG Principles 193
7.2.3 UG Parameters 195
7.2.4 Minimalist Program 199
7.2.5 Falsification 199
7.3 Transfer: The Generative/UG Perspective 201
7.3.1 Levels of Representation 202
7.3.2 Clustering 202
7.3.3 Learnability 203
7.4 The Fundamental Difference Hypothesis Revised 203
7.5 Semantics and the Syntax–Semantics Interface Hypothesis 205
7.5.1 Semantics 205
7.5.2 Syntax and Semantics: The Interface Hypothesis 205
7.6 Phonology 205
7.6.1 Markedness Differential Hypothesis 207
7.6.2 Similarity/Dissimilarity: Speech Learning Model 210
7.6.3 Optimality Theory 211
7.6.4 Ontogeny Phylogeny Model 212
7.7 Conclusion 215
難點注釋與評析 217
Suggestions for Additional Reading 220
More to Do and More to Think About... 221
8. The Lexicon 222
章節導讀 222
8.1 The Signifi cance of the Lexicon 225
8.2 Lexical Knowledge: What does it mean to know a word? 227
8.2.1 Production and Reception 227
8.2.2 Knowledge and Control 229
8.2.3 Breadth and Depth 230
8.2.4 Subcategorization 232
8.2.5 Word Associations and Networks 233
8.2.6 Word Formation 234
8.2.7 Formulaic Language, Collocations, and Chunking 235
8.3 Infl uences on L2 Vocabulary and Development 238
8.3.1 The Role of the L1 238
8.3.2 Incidental Vocabulary Learning 240
8.3.3 Incremental Vocabulary Learning 243
8.4 Using Lexical Skills 244
8.4.1 Production 244
8.4.2 Perception 248
8.5 Conclusion 250
難點注釋與評析 251
Suggestions for Additional Reading 254
More to Do and More to Think About... 254
9. Typological and Functional Approaches 258
章節導讀 258
9.1 Introduction 260
9.2 Typological Universals 261
9.2.1 Test Case I: The Accessibility Hierarchy 266
9.2.2 Test Case II: The Acquisition of Questions 269
9.2.3 Test Case III: Voiced/Voiceless Consonants 271
9.2.4 Falsifiability 273
9.2.5 Typological Universals: Conclusions 274
9.3 Functional Approaches 275
9.3.1 Tense and Aspect: The Aspect Hypothesis 275
9.3.2 The Discourse Hypothesis 280
9.3.3 Concept-Oriented Approach 282
9.4 Conclusion 282
難點注釋與評析 283
Suggestions for Additional Reading 286
More to Do and More to Think About... 286
10. Looking at Interlanguage Processing 291
章節導讀 291
10.1 Introduction 294
10.2 Processing Approaches 294
10.2.1 Processability Theory 294
10.2.2 Information Processing: Automaticity, Restructuring,
and U-Shaped Learning 297
10.2.2.1 Automaticity and Restructuring 298
10.2.2.2 U-Shaped Learning 303
10.2.3 Input Processing 305
10.3 Psycholinguistic Constructs 306
10.3.1 Attention 306
10.3.2 Working Memory 309
10.3.3 Syntactic Priming 312
10.4 Emergentist Models 314
10.4.1 Competition Model 315
10.4.2 Frequency-Based Accounts 321
10.5 Dynamic Systems 322
10.6 Knowledge Types 323
10.6.1 Acquisition/Learning 323
10.6.2 Declarative/Procedural 324
10.6.3 Implicit/Explicit 324
10.6.4 Representation/Control 325
10.7 Interface of Knowledge Types 327
10.7.1 No Interface 328
10.7.2 Weak Interface 328
10.7.3 Strong Interface 328
10.8 Conclusion 329
難點注釋與評析 331
Suggestions for Additional Reading 336
More to Do and More to Think About... 336
11. Interlanguage in Context 339
章節導讀 339
11.1 Introduction 342
11.2 Sociocultural Approaches 342
11.2.1 Mediation 343
11.2.2 Internalization 343
11.2.3 Zone of Proximal Development 344
11.2.4 Private Speech 344
11.2.5 Learning in a Sociocultural Framework 344
11.2.6 Gesture and SLA 345
11.3 Variation 347
11.4 Systematic Variation 350
11.4.1 Linguistic Context 350
11.4.2 Social Context Relating to the Native Language 353
11.4.3 Social Context Relating to Interlocutor, Task Type,
and Conversational Topic 356
11.5 Conversation Analysis 366
11.6 Communication Strategies 369
11.7 Interlanguage Pragmatics 371
11.8 Language Learning in a Study-Abroad Context 376
11.9 Conclusion: SLA and Other Disciplines 377
難點注釋與評析 379
Suggestions for Additional Reading 383
More to Do and More to Think About... 384
12. Input, Interaction, and Output 393
章節導讀 393
12.1 Introduction 396
12.2 Input 396
12.3 Comprehension 400
12.4 Interaction 405
12.5 Output 412
12.5.1 Feedback 416
12.5.1.1 Negotiation 418
12.5.1.2 Recasts 421
12.5.2 Hypothesis Testing 427
12.5.3 Automaticity 431
12.5.4 Meaning-Based to Grammar-Based Processing 431
12.6 The Role of Input and Interaction in Language Learning 432
12.6.1 The Functions of Input and Interaction 432
12.6.2 Effectiveness of Feedback 440
12.6.2.1 Attention 440
12.6.2.2 Contrast Theory 441
12.6.2.3 Metalinguistic Awareness 443
12.6.3 Who Benefits From Interaction? 445
12.7 Limitations of Input 447
12.8 Conclusion 447
難點注釋與評析 449
Suggestions for Additional Reading 450
More to Do and More to Think About... 451
13. Instructed Second Language Learning 457
章節導讀 457
13.1 Introduction 460
13.2 Classroom Language 461
13.3 Teachability/Learnability 465
13.4 Focus on Form 468
13.4.1 Timing 472
13.4.2 Forms to Focus On 474
13.4.3 Task Design 475
13.4.4 Input Manipulation and Input Enhancement 476
13.5 Complexity, Accuracy, Fluency, and Planning 478
13.6 Processing Instruction 481
13.7 Uniqueness of Instruction 484
13.8 Effectiveness of Instruction 486
13.9 SLA and Classroom Practices 488
13.10 Conclusion 489
難點注釋與評析 489
Suggestions for Additional Reading 492
More to Do and More to Think About... 493
14. Nonlanguage Influences 495
章節導讀 495
14.1 Introduction 498
14.2 Research Traditions 499
14.2.1 Linguistics 499
14.2.2 Psychology 500
14.2.3 Psycholinguistics 500
14.3 Methodological Considerations 501
14.4 Age Differences 501
14.5 Aptitude 511
14.6 Motivation 519
14.6.1 Motivation as a Function of Time and Success 522
14.6.2 Changes Over Time 522
14.6.3 Influence of Success on Motivation and
Demotivation 523
14.7 Affect 526
14.7.1 Language Shock and Culture Shock 527
14.7.2 Anxiety 529
14.7.3 Social Distance 531
14.8 Extroversion and Introversion 532
14.9 Learning Strategies 533
14.10 Conclusion 540
難點注釋與評析 541
Suggestions for Additional Reading 544
More to Do and More to Think About... 545
15. Related Disciplines 547
章節導讀 547
15.1 Introduction 550
15.2 Bilingual Acquisition 551
15.3 Third Language Acquisition/ ltilingualism 557
15.4 Heritage Language Acquisition 562
15.5 SLA by Hearing Impaired 564
15.6 Conclusion 566
難點注釋與評析 567
Suggestions for Additional Reading 569
More to Do and More to Think About... 570
16. An Integrated View of Second Language Acquisition 572
章節導讀 572
16.1 An Integration of Sub-Areas 574
16.1.1 Apperceived Input 577
16.1.2 Comprehended Input 579
16.1.3 Intake 581
16.1.4 Integration 582
16.1.5 Output 584
16.2 Conclusion 585
難點注釋與評析 587
More to Do and More to Think About... 588
Glossary 598
References 611
