"一本討論思考的書應該強調“要做什麼”，而不是“要避免做什麼”。思考是積極、動態的，而不是消極、靜態的。有效的思考者不會坐在那裡批評別人的努力，他們會解決問題，做出決策，表明立場。一本討論思考的書應該讓讀者掌握思考的原則和技巧。讓讀者知道已經形成的問題和爭議是不夠的，還必須讓他們學會構造自己的問題和爭議。一本討論思考的書應該教會讀者怎樣評價自己的想法以及別人的想法。人類非常善於自欺，因此對於讀者來說，看到自身的盲點、偏見和錯誤，要比給別人挑毛病困難得多。然而對他們的有效思考而言，優選的障等

●PART I Be Aware
CHAPTER 1 Developing Your Thinking: An Overview 3
What Is Thinking? 4
The Importance of Thinking 6
Brain and Mind at Work 8
The Production Phase 9
The Judgment Phase 10
Good Thinking Is a Habit 10
The Structure of This Book 11
Getting the Most from Your Efforts 12
Using Feelings to Advantage 14
Learning to Concentrate 15
Coping with Frustration 16
Making Discussion Meaningful 16
Whenever sible, Prepare in Advance 17
Set Reasonable Expectations 17
Leave Egotism and Personal Agendas at the Door 18
Contribute but Don’t Dominate 18
Avoid Distracting Speech Mannerisms 18
Listen Actively 19
Judge Ideas Responsibly 19
Resist the Urge to Shout or Interrupt 20
Preliminary Thinking Strategies 20
Sample Exercises and Responses 23
Warm-Up Exercises 25
Applications 26
CHAPTER 2 Establish a Foundation 31
Free Will Versus Determinism 32
What Is Truth? 33
What Is Knowing? 36
Ways of Knowing 37
Experience 38
Observation 39
Report 39
The Problem of Remembering 41
What Are Opinions? 43
Expressions of Taste 43
Expressions of Judgment 43
Understanding Cause and Effect 44
Debating Moral Questions 51
The Basis of Moral Judgment 53
Dealing with Dilemmas 57
A Special Thinking Strategy 58
Warm-Up Exercises 60
Applications 60
CHAPTER 3 Broaden Your Perspective 66
Becoming an Individual 69
Habits that Hinder Thinking 72
The Mine-Is-Better Habit 72
Face Saving 73
Resistance to Change 75
Conformity 77
Stereotyping 79
Self-Deception 80
Overcoming Bad Habits 82
Warm-Up Exercises 84
Applications 84
CHAPTER 4 Be a Critical Reader, Listener, and Viewer 88
Critical Evaluation Defined 89
Making Important Distinctions 91
The Distinction between the Person and the Idea 91
The Distinction between Matters of Taste and Matters of Judgment 92
The Distinction between Fact and Interpretation 92
The Distinction between Literal and Ironic Statements 94
The Distinction between an Idea’s Validity and the Quality of Its Expression 94
The Distinction between Language and Reality 95
A Strategy for Critical Reading 97
Step 1: Skim the Work 97
Step 2: Reflect on Your Views 98
Step 3: Read the Work 98
Step 4: Evaluate What You Read 99
Step 5: Express Your Judgment 102
A Sample Evaluation and Judgment 103
A Strategy for Critical Listening 106
Step 1: Set Aside Preconceptions 107
Step 2: Focus on the Message 107
Step 3: Identify Key Assertions and Supporting Information 108
Steps 4 and 5: Evaluate the Message and Express Your Judgment 108
A Strategy for Critical Viewing 108
How Critical Analysis Relates to Writing 111
Warm-Up Exercises 111
Applications 112
PART II Be Creative
CHAPTER 5 The Creative Process 125
Key Facts about Creativity 126
“Doing Your Own Thing” Is Not Necessarily a Mark of Creativity 127
Creativity Does Not Require Special Intellectual Talent or a High IQ 127
The Use of Drugs Hinders Creativity 127
Creativity Is an Expression of Mental Health 128
Characteristics of Creative People 129
Creative People Are Dynamic 129
Creative People Are Daring 130
Creative People Are Resourceful 130
Creative People Are Hardworking 131
Creative People Are Independent 131
Applying Creativity to Problems and Issues 132
Taking a Novel Approach 133
Devising or Modifying a Process or System 134
Inventing a New Product or Service 134
Finding New Uses for Existing Things 135
Improving Things 136
Inventing or Redefining a Concept 136
Stages in the Creative Process 137
The First Stage: Searching for Challenges 138
The Second Stage: Expressing the Problem or Issue 138
The Third Stage: Investigating the Problem or Issue 139
The Fourth Stage: Producing Ideas 139
Warm-Up Exercises 140
Applications 141
CHAPTER 6 Search for Challenges 144
The Importance of Curiosity 145
How Curiosity Is Lost 146
Regaining Your Curiosity 147
Six Helpful Techniques 148
Be Observant 149
Look for the Imperfections in Things 151
Note Your Own and Others’ Dissatisfactions 152
Search for Causes 152
Be Sensitive to Implications 153
Recognize the Opportunity in Controversy 155
Warm-Up Exercises 156
Applications 156
CHAPTER 7 Express the Problem or Issue 161
Distinguishing Problems from Issues 162
Expressing Problems 163
Expressing Issues 164
When Problems Become Issues 165
Guidelines for Expressing Problems and Issues 166
Benefits of Careful Expression 167
It Helps You Move Beyond the Familiar and Habitual 167
It Keeps Your Thinking Flexible 167
It Opens Many Lines of Thought 168
A Sample Problem 170
A Sample Issue 171
Warm-Up Exercises 173
Applications 173
CHAPTER 8 Investigate the Problem or Issue 176
What to Look for 178
Eyewitness Testimony 178
Unpublished Report 179
Published Report 179
Expert Opinion 180
Experiment 180
Statistics 181
Survey 182
Observational Study 182
Research Review 183
Your Personal Experience 183
The Experiences of People You Know 185
Using the Library 186
Using the Internet 188
Maintaining a Questioning Perspective 191
Managing an Interview 192
Avoiding Plagiarism 194
Conducting Your Own Research 200
Consider Doing a Survey 200
Consider Doing an Observational Study 200
Keeping Creativity Alive 200
Warm-Up Exercises 201
Applications 202
CHAPTER 9 Produce Ideas 207
Stimulating Your Imagination 209
Force Uncommon Responses 209
Use Free Association 210
Use Analogy 210
Look for Unusual Combinations 211
Visualize the Solution 212
Construct Pro and Con Arguments 212
Construct Relevant Scenarios 213
Aiming for Originality 215
Withholding Judgment 215
Overcoming Obstacles 216
Thinker’s Block 217
Vagueness and Confusion 218
Inflexibility 218
How Insight Occurs 219
A Sample Problem 220
A Sample Issue 223
Warm-Up Exercises 226
Applications 226
PART III Be Critical
CHAPTER 10 The Role of Criticism 231
Why Criticism Is Necessary 232
Focus on Your Ideas 233
Overcoming Obstacles to Critical Thinking 233
Applying Curiosity 234
Avoiding Assumptions 235
Refining Your Solutions to Problems 236
A Sample Problem 237
Refining Your itions on Issues 239
A Sample Issue 240
Taking Action on the Issue 241
Warm-Up Exercises 242
Applications 243
CHAPTER 11 Refine Your Solution to the Problem 246
Three Steps in Refining 247
Step 1: Working Out the Details 247
Step 2: Finding Imperfections and Complications 249
Step 3: Making Improvements 251
Two Sample Problems 252
The First Problem 252
The Second Problem 255
Warm-Up Exercises 257
Applications 258
CHAPTER 12 Evaluate Your Argument on the Issue 261
Errors Affecting Truth 262
Either/or Thinking 262
Avoiding the Issue 263
Overgeneralizing 263
Oversimplifying 265
Double Standard 265
Shifting the Burden of Proof 266
Irrational Appeal 266
Errors Affecting Validity 267
A Special Problem: The Hidden Premise 270
Recognizing Complex Arguments 272
Steps in Evaluating an Argument 273
The Case of Parents Protesting TV Programs 274
The Case of the Mentally Impaired Girls 276
Warm-Up Exercises 277
Applications 278
CHAPTER 13 Refine Your Resolution of the Issue 284
Step 1: Deciding What Action Should Be Taken 285
Step 2: Recognizing and Overcoming Difficulties 286
Should Children Pledge Allegiance? 287
Should the Miranda Rule Be Abolished? 289
Warm-Up Exercises 290
Applications 291
PART IV Communicate Your Ideas
CHAPTER 14 Persuading Others 297
Understanding Why People Reject Ideas 299
Knowing Your Audience 300
Anticipating Your Audience’s Objections 302
The Brainstorming Technique 303
The Imaginary-Dialogue Technique 303
Presenting Your Ideas to Advantage 306
Respect Your Audience 306
Begin with the Familiar 307
Select the Most Appropriate Tone 308
Emphasize the Evidence for Your View 308
Answer All Significant Objections 309
The Importance of Timing 309
Warm-Up Exercises 310
Applications 311
CHAPTER 15 Writing and Speaking Effectively 314
Characteristics of Effective Writing 315
A Step-by-Step Approach to Composition 317
Planning 317
Drafting 319
Revising 320
Editing 320
Developing a Readable Style 321
A Sample Composition 323
The Challenge of Effective Speaking 326
Types of Speeches 326
Organizing Your Material 327
Sample Outline and Speech 328
Practicing the Delivery 332
Warm-Up Exercises 333
Applications 334
Solutions to Sample Problems 339
The Three Glasses Problem 339
The Young Girl/Old Woman Problem 339
The Vase and Faces Problem 340
Notes 341
Credits 351
Index 355

現在，幾乎每個教育協會都在呼吁要更加重視批判性思維。教育家、政治家、社會學家以及各個領域的學者都明白，言語和影像的訴求在不斷地轟炸我們，試圖說服我們去相信、去行動、去購買或者去參與。我們都需要批判性思維的技能和策略，這樣纔能理解和分析那些訴求。本書既可以給正式的批判性思維課程作為教材，也可以給各個強調批判性思維的學科作為教學補充材料。本書已被成功地用於作文、公開演講、創造性和批判性思維等課程，以及商科、人文學科、社會科學和自然科學等眾多學科。

(美)文森特·賴安·拉吉羅 著