《大規模英語考試作文評分信度與網上閱卷實證研究》：
Bachman and Palmer (1996: 35) point out that the impact of a test should be evaluated with reference to the contextual variables of society's goals and values, the educational system in which the test is used, and the potential outcomes ofits use. They state that the impact of a test may operate at two levels: the micro level (i.e., the effect of the test on individual students and teachers) and the macro level (the impact on
society and its educational systems).
Yang and Gui (2007) point out that large-scale high-stakes tests have social impact and they should be made to measure test takers' English proficiency accurately, objectively and fairly. A good test should have positive washback on teaching and beneficial impact on society. They argue that the negative washback effect of a public test is mainly caused by the social weight it carries, and has little to do with the item types and
the test content. Therefore, all the test stake-holders should share their responsibility for avoiding any misuse ofthe test results.
Bailey (1996: 264) proposes a model of washback based on a framework consisting of participants, process and product. Participants include learners and teachers, administrators, material developers,and publishers (because they publish tests written by people in the language teaching field and/or textbooks that are designed explicitly as test preparation materials). Process refers to any action taken by the participants that may contribute to the process oflearning. Such action may include materials development, syllabus design, changes in teaching methods and/or content, learning and/or test-taking strategies. Product is what learners have learned through the process and the quality oflearning.
Alderson and Wall (1993: 120-121) proposes fifteen possible hypotheses that they hope will better define the washback construct in empirical investigations. Among these hypotheses, five directly address learner washback, five directly address teacher washback, and three refer to both teaching and learning. The importance oflearners and teachers in washback processes is emphasized.
However, although language learners are the key participants whose lives are most directly influenced by washback, there is little research into
how tests actually influence ESL/EFL learners' behavior and attitudes before and after tests. In contrast, there have been much more studies of teachers as participants in the washback process. When considering the varied research about washback and language teachers, Bailey (1999) notes that "teachers' classroom behavior can either support or override the intended positive washback effect of new or revised tests" (p.23). There have also been differences observed between experienced and novice teachers with respect to washback. The former "turned to the test as their main source of guidance for teaching oral language and used only material to be included in the test" (Shohamy et al., 1996: 301), while the latter used "a variety of additional activities in the teaching of oral language"(ibid.). Also, teachers have been observed to change their teaching contents, but not their teaching methods as a result of examination changes (Wall, 1996: 348).
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