Contents
Section 1 Basic Geology 1
1.1 The Earth 1
1.1.1 Interior of the Earth 1
1.1.2 Chemical Composition of the Earth 3
1.1.3 Outer Sphere of the Earth 4
1.2 Mineral 8
1.2.1 Physical Properties of Minerals 9
1.2.2 Common Minerals 11
1.3 Rock 15
1.3.1 Three Great Classes of Rocks 15
1.3.2 Igneous Rocks 15
1.3.3 Sedimentary Rocks 18
1.3.4 Metamorphic Rocks 21
1.4 Erosion and Deposition 23
1.4.1 Erosion 23
1.4.2 Geological Action of River 23
1.4.3 Weathering and Soils 25
1.4.4 Deposition 26
1.4.5 Elevations and Subsidence 26
1.5 Folds and Faults 27
1.5.1 Folds and Faults 27
1.5.2 Earthquakes 29
1.6 The Geologic Time Scale 30
1.6.1 Fossils 30
1.6.2 The Geologic Time Scale 33
1.6.3 Formulation of Geologic Time Scale 35
1.6.4 Naming of Geologic Periods， Eras and Epochs 36
Section 2 Ocean Floor Morphology 38
2.1 Introduction 38
2.2 Continental Shelf 41
2.2.1 General Features 42
2.2.2 Continental Shelf Landforms 43
2.3 Submarine Canyons 46
2.3.1 Definitions and Nomenclature 47
2.3.2 Origin of Submarine Canyons 49
2.3.3 Significance of Submarine Canyons 52
2.4 Hadel Trenches 52
2.4.1 Discovery of Oceanic Trenches 53
2.4.2 Deep Sea Trenches as Sediment Traps 54
2.4.3 Accretionary Wedge and Outer Ridge 57
2.4.4 Subduction Erosion Instead of Accretion 58
2.5 Bathymetry of Global Ocean Basins 61
2.5.1 Mapping of Ocean floor Bathymetry 61
2.5.2 Origin and Geomorphic Characteristics of Ocean Basins 64
2.5.3 Origin and Geomorphic Characteristics of Bathymetric Ocean Basins 66
2.6 Submarine Seamounts 67
2.6.1 Concepts 67
2.6.2 Submarine Geomorphology of Volcanic Islands and Seamounts 69
2.7 Mid-Ocean Ridges 72
2.7.1 General Features 72
2.7.2 Topography of the Ridges 73
2.7.3 Topography of the Transform Faults 78
2.7.4 Formation Processes 80
Section 3 Tectonics of Ocean Floor 82
3.1 Introduction 82
3.2 Mantle Plumes and Heat-pipe Tectonics 83
3.2.1 Heat-pipe Tectonics 84
3.2.2 Mantle Plume Tectonics 85
3.2.3 Pre-plate Tectonic Evolution of Early Earth 87
3.3 Terrane Tectonics and Micro-block 88
3.3.1 Terrane Tectonics 88
3.3.2 Microplate Tectonics 97
3.4 Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics 109
3.4.1 Continental Drift Hypothesis 109
3.4.2 Plate Tectonics Theory 111
3.4.3 Plate Tectonic Reconstruction 112
3.5 Subduction Factory 116
3.5.1 Subduction Zones and Island Arcs 116
3.5.2 Active Continental Margins 122
3.5.3 Subduction and Deep Carbon Cycle 123
3.6 Wilson Cycle and Supercontinent Cycle 126
3.6.1 Wilson Cycle 126
3.6.2 Supercontinent Cycle 128
Section 4 Marine Sediments 134
4.1 Major Types of Marine Sediments 134
4.2 Sediments from Source to Sink 139
4.2.1 Sources of Sediment 139
4.2.2 Sediment Transfer and Sinks 148
4.2.3 Source-to-Sink System in Marginal Sea 152
4.3 Sediment Transport and Redistribution 158
4.3.1 Sediment Routing and Forcing 160
4.3.2 The Hjulstr*m Diagram and Role of Water Velocity 163
4.4 Pelagic Sediments 166
4.4.1 Pelagic Sediment Types and Distributional Patterns 166
4.4.2 Sediment Thicknesses and Sedimentation Rates 172
4.5 Marine Sediments and Climate Change 174
4.5.1 What Makes the Climate Change? 174
4.5.2 Paleoclimate Records of Marine Sediments 176
4.5.3 The Linkage between Marine Sediments and the Earth’s Future Climate 182
4.6 Sampling of Marine Sediments 184
Section 5 Coastal Zone 187
5.1 Coastal Geomorphology 187
5.1.1 Coastal Classification 189
5.1.2 Factors Influencing Coastal Morphology and Processes 190
5.2 Sea-level Changes 191
5.2.1 Definition 191
5.2.2 Methods of Measuring Sea-level Change 193
5.2.3 Factors Affecting Sea-level Change 194
5.3 Beach and Nearshore Systems 198
5.3.1 Beach Sediments 202
5.3.2 Sediment Lateral Movement and Equilibrium Profile 204
5.3.3 The Longitudinal Movement and Budget of Sediment 206
5.3.4 Shoreline Change and the Theory 210
5.4 Rock Coasts 214
5.4.1 Features and Geomorphology 214
5.4.2 Rock Coasts Geomorphology Formation and Evolution 216
5.4.3 Factors Influencing Marine Erosion 218
5.5 Muddy Coast 221
5.5.1 Tidal Flat 222
5.5.2 Salt Marshes 223
5.5.3 Mangroves 225
5.6 Coral Reefs 228
5.6.1 Coral Organisms—Coral Polyps 228
5.6.2 Coral Divisions and Coral Reef Distribution 230
5.6.3 Environment and Control Factors 232
5.6.4 Formation and Evolution of Coral Reefs 233
5.6.5 Coral Reef Records Climate and Sea-level 234
5.6.6 Existential Status Quo， Threats and Management 236
5.7 Integrated Coastal Zone Management and Strategy 238
5.7.1 Current Situation of Comprehensive Coastal Zone Management Abroad 239
5.7.2 The Strategy of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 239
5.7.3 How to Realize Comprehensive Coastal Zone Management in China? 240
Section 6 Estuaries and Deltas 242
6.1 Basic C